SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT - ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES: SPECIAL REFERENCE TO INDIA - A WAY FORWARD

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT – ENVIRONMENENTAL ISSUES: SPECIAL REFERENCE TO INDIA – A WAY FORWARD -*Dr. S. Vijay Kumar ABSTRACT There is a direct relationship between environment and economic development. Economic development without environmental considerations can cause serious environmental damage in turn impairing the quality of life of present and future generations. In the process of economic development, the environmental problems have been ignored or less concentrated. Any country’s environmental problems are related to the level of its economic development, the availability of natural resources and the lifestyle of its population. Rapid population growth, poverty, urbanization, industrialization and several related factors are responsible for the rapid degradation of the environment. Now, the need of the hour is to concentrate on sustainable development i.e., “Meeting the needs of present generation without compromising with the needs of future generations”. In order to be sustainable, development must combine three main elements: fairness, protection of the environment, and economic efficiency. This is possible in particular via measures to protect the quality of the environment, and by the restoration, development, and maintenance of habitats that are essential to species. This implies the sustainable management of the use of the animal and plant populations being exploited. In other words, it is the rational management of human, natural, and economic resources that aims to satisfy the essential needs of humanity in the very long term. Today, developing countries and developed countries are all suffering from environmental problems. Therefore, environmental problems have been the object of discussion throughout the world. Key Words: Environmental Issues, Climate Change, Global Warming, Biodiversity, Sustainable Development The term ‘sustainable development’ remained virtually unnoticed until its revival in the Gro Harlem Brundtland report 'Our common future', published in 1987. It is very encouraging, therefore, to see that nations renewed their commitments to sustainable development in 2012 at Rio+20, and affirmed that a new integrated agenda beyond 2015 would ensure the promotion of an economically, socially and environmentally viable future for our planet and for present and future generations. They called for the development of Sustainable Development Goals. During the first United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA-1), in June 2014, ministers concluded that the post-2015 sustainable development agenda should fully integrate economic, social and environmental dimensions in a "coherent, holistic, comprehensive and balanced manner". This was reiterated by the UN Secretary-General in his December 2014 synthesis report The Road to Dignity by 2030. Sustainable development means, “Meeting the needs of present generation without compromising with the needs of future generations.” In 1983, the United Nations set up the World Commission on Environment and Development called 'the Brundtland Commission' to examine the problems related to this area. The Commission in its report entitled "Our Common Future" submitted in 1987, used and defined this concept of sustainable development for the first time. The concept of sustainable development was defined by Ms. Gro Harlem Brundtland, the then Prime Minister of Norway and the chair of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) as “Meeting the needs of present generation without compromising with the needs of future generations.” This report insists on the need to protect the diversity of genes, species, and all terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in nature. This implies the sustainable management of the use of the animal and plant populations being exploited. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------*Professor (Associate) & Head (Retd.), Bharat Jyothi Awardee (Glory of India), Department of Economics, KGC PG College (NAAC “A” Grade), Ex - Member of Board of Studies, Kakatiya University, Warangal – 506 009 (Telangana State) - India. Save Environment for Better Future – Prevent Disasters. Awake and stop not until the goal of save environment is successfully achieved. This should be the spirit of every citizen and it should be taken up as a movement all over the world. To protect present and future generations there is no other way, except to protect environment. Environment can be simply defined as “A system encompassing all biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) elements affecting human life. The biotic components comprise all flora and fauna, and abiotic includes water, air, fire, sunlight, rocks, rivers, seas, climate etc. Environment plays a vital role in human civilization. Human beings have close relations with the biosphere in which they live. The whole environment and ecology consisting of earth, air, water, plants and animals provide the necessary and sufficient conditions for sustaining human life. There is direct relationship between environment and economic development. Economic development without environmental considerations can cause serious environmental damage in turn impairing the quality of life of present and future generations. In the process of economic development, the environmental problems have been ignored or less concentrated. Any country’s environmental problems are related to the level of its economic development, the availability of natural resources and the lifestyle of its population. Rapid population growth, poverty, urbanization, industrialization and several related factors are responsible for the rapid degradation of the environment. Today, developing countries and developed countries are all suffering from environmental problems. Therefore, environmental problems have been the object of discussion throughout the world. This Paper is an attempt to review the current state of the environment and identifying the policy issues for promoting sustainable development and to protect environment with a Special Reference to India and a way forward. This Paper is broadly divided into eight sections: (i) Environment-economy linkages, (ii) Review of major environmental concerns, (iii) Impact of environmental degradation on society, (iv) Global Environmental Issues, (v) Link between bio-diversity and climate change, (vi) Sustainable Development, (vii) Climate Change Impact and Actions with Special Reference to India, (viii) Suggestions and Conclusion. SECTION - I ENVIRONMENT-ECONOMY LINKAGES: All economic activities either affect or are affected by natural and environmental resources. Activities such as extraction, processing, manufacture, transport, consumption and disposal change the stock of natural resources add stress to the environmental systems and introduce Wastes to environmental media. Moreover, economic activities today affect the stock of natural resources available for the welfare of the future and have intertemporal welfare effects. From this perspective, the productivity of an economic system depends in part on the supply and quality of natural and environmental resources. Natural and environmental resources have three economic roles: (1) Waste disposal services, (2) Natural resources inputs into production and (3) Directly consumed life support services and authentic amenities. The natural and environmental resource input function is central to understanding the relationship between economic growth and environment. Water, soil, air, biological, forest and fisheries resources are productive assets, whose quality helps to determine the productivity of the economy. Focusing on this role of environment as producer good highlight the direct effect the environmental problems have on economic growth. Thus economic management lays emphasis on the environment and the environmental quality in turn on the efficient working of the economy. Environmental degradation imposes costs on the economy that results in output and human capital losses. Loss of labor productivity resulting from ill health, foregone crop output due to soil degradation and erosion, lost fisheries output and tourism receipts from coastal erosion or lost soil productivity from deforestation can be some of the manifestations of such reduced output. Moreover growing bodies of epidemiological studies suggest that air and water population are taking a heavy toll, particularly of people in the developing world, through ill health and premature mortality. The impact of water and air pollution is particularly adverse on the younger, the very aged and the poor. Pollution control is thus linked to sustainable development and not a luxury good to be afforded after the development process has taken off. SECTION-II REVIEW OF MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS: A country's environmental problems vary with its stage of development; structure of its economy, production technologies in use and its environmental policies. While some problems may be associated with the lack of economic development, others are exacerbated by the growth of economic activity; Poverty presents special problems for a densely populated country with limited resources. Soil Degradation: In India out of the total geographical areas of 329 million hectares, 175 million hectares are considered degraded. Erosion by water and wind is the most important factor to soil erosion with other factors like water logging, salivation etc., adding to the degradation. While soil erosion by rain and river in hill areas causes landslides and floods, deforestation, overgrazing, traditional agricultural practices, mining and incorrect setting of development projects in forest areas have resulted in opening up of these areas to heavy soil erosion. In the arid west, wind erosion causes expansion of desert, dust storms, whirlwinds and destruction of crops, while moving sand covers the land and makes it sterile. In the plains, riverine erosion due to floods and eutrophication due to agricultural runoff are noticed. Increased dependence on intensive agriculture and irrigation also results in salination, alkalization and water logging in irrigated areas of the country. Deforestation: Forest is renewable resource and contributes substantially to the economic development by providing goods and services to forest dwellers, people at large and forest based industries, besides generating substantial volume of employment. Forests are playing main role in enhancing the quality of environment by influencing the ecological balance and life support system. Biodiversity: Biodiversity is one of the major environmental concerns in India, now India is in the tenth position in the world and fourth in Asia in plant diversity. The biodiversity in forests, non-irrigated lands, irrigated lands and hill areas deserts and marines ecosystems is subject to many pressures. One of the major causes of the loss of biological diversity has been the depletion of vegetative cover in order to expand agriculture. Since most of the biodiversity rich forests also contain the maximum mineral wealth and also the best sites for water impoundment, mining and development projects in such areas have led to destruction of habitats. Poaching and illegal trade of wildlife products too, have adversely affected biodiversity. Pollution: The main factors contributing to urban air quality deterioration are growing industrialization and increasing vehicular pollution. It has been aggravated by developments that typically occur as countries industrialize, growing cities, increasing traffic, rapid economic development and industrial growth, all of which are closely associated with higher energy consumption. Industrial pollution is concentrated in industries like petroleum refineries, textiles, pulp and paper, industrial chemicals, iron and steel and nonmetallic mineral products. Small scale industries especially foundries, chemical manufacturing and brick making are also significant polluters. In the power sector, thermal power, which constitutes bulk of the installed capacity for electricity generation, is an important source of air pollution. Vehicle traffic is the most important source of pollution in all the mega cities. The number of vehicles in these cities has increased manifold. This increase has been characterized by a boom in private transport. Other reasons for high vehicular pollution are two stroke engines, aged vehicles, congested traffic, poor roads and outdated automotive technologies and traffic management system. Coastal and marine pollutions are most contributing factors to environment. The coastal areas of India, with a coast line of over 7500 km harbor a variety of specialized marine ecosystems like mangroves, coral reefs, salt lakes and mudflats which mainly form the habitat for endangered marine species and commercially important marine flora and fauna. An important impact of climate change and global warming may be the rise in sea level. The primary effect of sea level rise will be increased coastal flooding, erosion, storm surges and wave activity. Primary studies on the impact of one-meter sea level rise on the Indian coastline indicate that 0.41 % of India's coastal area will be inducted. Poverty is also one of the reasons for environmental degradation in India. The circular link between poverty and environment is an extremely complex phenomenon. Inequality may foster unsustainability because the poor, who rely on natural resources more than the rich, deplete natural resources faster as they have no real prospects of gaining access to other type of resources. Acceleration in poverty alleviation is imperative to break this link between poverty and environment. SECTION - III IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION ON SOCIETY: Environmental degradation is the result of the dynamic interplay of socioeconomic, institutional and technological activities. Environmental changes may be driven by many factors including economic growth, population growth, urbanization, intensification of agriculture, rising energy use and transportation. Poverty still remains a problem at the root of several environmental problems. The impact of environmental degradation on society has been discussed in the following: It has been estimated that the process of deforestation, bad soil and water management, submergence of and in dam reservoirs, industrial and urban expansion, overgrazing, wind and water erosion, salination, flooding, water logging and so on, contribute to a loss of productivity in roughly one million hectare of land annually. The above process results in desertification and creation of drought prone conditions, leading to the immersion of those dependent on land for their daily subsistence. Given these processes and the resultant, decline in livelihood for the millions critically dependent on these resources, there are few options but to cultivate increasingly marginal lands, thereby compounding the sustainability crisis. The impact on women is even more severe, as the loss access to fuel, fodder and water forces them to walk miles to collect the essential necessities for their subsistence. The consequent escalation in the pressure on available arable land is so enormous that it has contributed to the growth of criminalization in the country side with illegal occupation of community lands, the formation of land armies by land lords to oppose any demands by marginal farmers for land, as well as increasingly militant movements to assert local control over productive resources like land and forests. The latter process most often results in state repression, compounding the climate of social unrest. Much of these have severally strained social relations within communities and between communities and the state. For instance, every year, over five lakh people are forcibly displaced by development projects alone. Most of them are not rehabilitated, and alternatives are rarely provided. In the process, communities and families are broken up, destroying structure of social and economic support. Loss of cultural diversity is an inevitable consequence. For instance, a report based on a comprehensive survey of people displaced by the Rihan Dam stated that, "Many of the oustees, particularly the tribals, have fallen into the typical cycle of debt bondage, coupled with increasing destitution and intermittent employment as contract labourers in coal mines and elsewhere ... most were simply kicked out with nothing left to fend for themselves." SECTION – IV GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES: As early as 1896, the Swedish scientist Santé Arrhenius a Swedish Scientist had predicted that human activities would interfere with the way, the sun interacts with the earth, resulting in global warming and climate change. His prediction has become true and climate change is now disrupting global environmental stability. The last few decades have seen many treaties, conventions, and protocols for the cause of global environmental protection. Few examples of environmental issues of global significance are: • Climate change • Ozone layer depletion • Global warming • Loss of biodiversity Climate change: Climate change refers to the long-term impact on temperature or weather patterns and global temperature rise due to excessive greenhouse gases. 2023 Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has highlighted some of the following main points: • Human activities, principally through emissions of greenhouse gases, have unequivocally caused global warming, with global surface temperature reaching 1.1°C above 1850-1900 in 2011-2020. • Widespread and rapid changes in the atmosphere, ocean, cryosphere and biosphere have occurred. • Climate change has reduced food security and affected water security, hindering efforts to meet Sustainable Development Goals. • Climate change has caused widespread adverse impacts and related losses and damages to nature and people that are unequally distributed across systems, regions and sectors. • In urban areas, observed climate change has caused adverse impacts on human health, livelihoods and key infrastructure. • Innovation and adoption of low-emission technologies lags in most developing countries, particularly least developed ones, due in part to weaker enabling conditions, including limited finance, technology development and transfer, and capacity building. • International cooperation is a critical enabler for achieving ambitious climate change mitigation, adaptation, and climate resilient development. Despite several preventative measures and new technologies being made to combat further climate change, the truth is that the forecast for climate change in 2024 is not looking much better. Climate change in 2024 and the years to come are only expected to get worse. The worst projection for climate change in 2024 is that the chance for the average global temperature to rise above 1.5°C has increased to almost 50% for the next five year period between 2022 and 2026. It is expected that 2024 will continue to be exceptionally warm, seeing as 2023 broke multiple temperature records worldwide. As long as we continue to emit extreme amounts of greenhouse gas and carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere, climate change will continue to worsen. Ozone Layer Depletion: Earth’s atmosphere is divided into three regions, namely troposphere, stratosphere and mesosphere. The stratosphere extends from 10 to 50 kms from the Earth’s surface. This region is concentrated with slightly pungent smelling, light bluish ozone gas. The ozone gas is made up of molecules each containing three atoms of oxygen; its chemical formula is O3. The ozone layer, in the stratosphere acts as an efficient filter for harmful solar Ultraviolet B (UV-B) rays. Ozone is produced and destroyed naturally in the atmosphere and until recently, this resulted in a well-balanced equilibrium. Ozone is formed when oxygen molecules absorb ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths less than 240 nanometers and is destroyed when it absorbs ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths greater than 290 nanometers. In recent years, scientists have measured a seasonal thinning of the ozone layer primarily at the South Pole. This phenomenon is being called the ozone hole. Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion: Increased penetration of solar UV-B radiation is likely to have high impact on human health with potential risks of eye diseases, skin cancer and infectious diseases. Effects on Terrestrial Plants: In forests and grasslands, increased radiation is likely to change species composition thus altering the bio-diversity in different ecosystems. It could also affect the plant community indirectly resulting in changes in plant form, secondary metabolism, etc. Effects on Aquatic Ecosystems: High levels of radiation exposure in tropics and subtropics may affect the distribution of phytoplanktons (micro algae), which form the foundation of aquatic food webs. It can also cause damage to early development stages of fish, shrimp, crab, amphibians and other animals, the most severe effects being decreased reproductive capacity and impaired larval development. Effects on Bio-geo-chemical Cycles: Increased solar UV radiation could affect terrestrial and aquatic bio-geo-chemical cycles thus altering both sources and sinks of greenhouse and important trace gases, e.g. carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbonyl sulfide (COS), etc. These changes would contribute to biosphere-atmosphere feedbacks responsible for the atmosphere build-up of these greenhouse gases. Effects on Air Quality: Reduction of stratospheric ozone and increased penetration of UV-B radiation result in higher photo dissociation rates of key trace gases that control the chemical reactivity of the troposphere. This can increase both production and destruction of ozone and related oxidants such as hydrogen peroxide, which are known to have adverse effects on human health, terrestrial plants and outdoor materials. The ozone layer, therefore, is highly beneficial to plant and animal life on earth filtering out the dangerous part of sun’s radiation and allowing only the beneficial part to reach earth. Any disturbance or depletion of this layer would result in an increase of harmful radiation reaching the earth’s surface leading to dangerous consequences. Ozone Depletion Counter Measures: International cooperation, agreement (Montreal Protocol) to phase out ozone depleting chemicals since 1974: • Tax imposed for ozone depleting substances • Ozone friendly substitutes- HCFC (less ozone depleting potential and shorter life) • Recycle of CFCs and Halons. Global Warming: Before the Industrial Revolution, human activities released very few gases into the atmosphere and all climate changes happened naturally. After the Industrial Revolution, through fossil fuel combustion, changing agricultural practices and deforestation, the natural composition of gases in the atmosphere is getting affected and climate and environment began to alter significantly. Over the last 100 years, it was found out that the earth is getting warmer and warmer, unlike previous 8000 years when temperatures have been relatively constant. The present temperature is 0.3 - 0.6oC warmer than it was 100 years ago. The key greenhouse gases (GHG) causing global warming is carbon dioxide. CFC's, even though they exist in very small quantities, are significant contributors to global warming. Carbon dioxide, one of the most prevalent greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, has two major anthropogenic (human-caused) sources: the combustion of fossil fuels and changes in land use. Net releases of carbon dioxide from these two sources are believed to be contributing to the rapid rise in atmospheric concentrations since Industrial Revolution. Because estimates indicate that approximately 80 percent of all anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions currently come from fossil fuel combustion, world energy use has emerged at the center of the climate change debate. 2023 was the hottest year on record, with global average temperatures at 1.46C above pre-industrial levels and 0.13C higher than the eleven-month average for 2016, currently the warmest calendar year on record. According to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Administrator Rick Spinrad, the steady annual increase of global warming is a “direct result of human activity,” mainly from the burning of fossil fuels for transportation and electricity generation but also from cement manufacturing, deforestation, and agriculture. Loss of Biodiversity: The term biodiversity was coined in 1985. “Biodiversity is the variation among living organisms from different sources including terrestrial, marine and desert ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are a part.” More than 500 species of land animals are on the brink of extinction and are likely to be lost within 20 years; the same numbers were lost over the whole of the last century. The scientists say that without the human destruction of nature, this rate of loss would have taken thousands of years. In Antarctica, climate change-triggered melting of sea ice is taking a heavy toll on emperor penguins and could wipe out entire populations according to 2023 research. SECTION – V LINK BETWEEN BIO-DIVERSITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE • Climate change is affecting species already threatened by multiple threats across the globe. Habitat fragmentation due to colonization, logging, agriculture and mining etc. are all contributing to further destruction of terrestrial habitats. • Individual species may not be able to adapt. Species most threatened by climate change have small ranges, low population densities, restricted habitat requirements and patchy distribution. • Ecosystems will generally shift northward or upward in altitude, but in some cases they will run out of space – as 10C change in temperature correspond to a 100 Km change in latitude, hence, average shift in habitat conditions by the year 2100 was the order of 140 to 580 Km. • Coral reef (most diverse of all marine ecosystems) mortality may increase and erosion may be accelerated. Increase levels of carbon dioxide adversely impact the coral building process (calcification). • Sea level may rise, engulfing low-lying areas causing disappearance of many islands, and extinctions of endemic island species. • Invasive species may be aided by climate change. Exotic species can out-compete native wildlife for space, food, water and other resources, and may also prey on native wildlife. • Droughts and wildfires may increase. An increased risk of wildfires due to warming and drying out of vegetation is likely. Sustained climate change may change the competitive balance among species and might lead to forests destruction. SECTION - VI SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: Sustainable development means “Meeting the needs of present generation without compromising with the needs of future generations”. It implies the fulfillment of several conditions: preserving the overall balance, respect for the environment, and preventing the exhaustion of natural resources. Reduced production of waste and the rationalization of production and energy consumption must also be implemented. Sustainable development is presented as a more or less clean break from other modes of development, which have led and are still leading to worrying social and ecological damage on both a worldwide and a local scale. In order to be sustainable, development must combine three main elements: fairness, protection of the environment, and economic efficiency. A sustainable development project must be based on a better-developed mode of consultation between the community and the members it comprises. The success of such a policy also depends on consumers accepting certain constraints and citizens observing certain requirements with regard to transparency and participation. Dimensions of Sustainability: They are powerful tool for defining the complete sustainability problem. This consists of Economic, Social, and Environmental pillars. If anyone pillar is weak then the system as a whole is unsustainable. Most national and international problem solving efforts focus on only one pillar at a time. For example, the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), the environmental protection agencies (EPA) of many nations and environmental NGOs focus on the environmental pillar. The World Trade Organization (WTO) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) focus mostly on economic growth, thought the OECD gives some attention to social sustainability, like war reduction and justice. The United Nations attempts to strengthen all three pillars, but due to its consensual decision making process and small budget has minor impact. The United Nations focuses mostly on the economic pillar, since economic growth is what most of its members want most, especially developing nations. This leaves a void. No powerful international organization is working on the sustainability problem as a whole, which would include all three pillars. However, as the Great Recession of 2008 demonstrated, weakness in the other pillars can directly weaken the environmental pillar. Many nations and states are cutting back or postponing stricter environmental laws or investment, since their budgets are running deficits. Many environmental NGOs are seeing their income fall. The social pillar is critical too. Once a war breaks out environmental sustainability has zero priority. If a nation lives in dire poverty, the environment is pillaged with little thought for the future. Therefore solutions to the sustainability problem must include making all three pillars sustainable. G The largest system of them all is the biosphere we live in. It contains the human system, which has two main systems: social and economic. When groups of people, from a tribe to a nation, agree to form a government they form a social contract to increase their general welfare. This contract binds the social and economic systems of the group of individuals together. The people (the social subsystem) are working together under a central government to maximize their economic system's output. Seeing the overall system this way makes it clear that environmental sustainability must have the highest priority, because the lower the carrying capacity of the environment, the lower the common good delivered by the social system and the less output the economic system can produce. Important Policies of Sustainable Development: (1) Accelerating economic growth (2) Meeting basic needs (3) Raising living standards (4) Helping in ensuring clean environment free from all types of pollution (5) Maximizing the net effects of economic development (6) Preservation and enhancement of the stock of the environmental, human and physical capital (7) Inter generational equity and (8) Overall strict control on gross exploitation of the natural resources of each country. Challenges for Sustainable Development: In the field of sustainable development, there are many major challenges to be addressed. They require us to re-think our economy and our growth in favour of a society that is more economical in its use of raw materials and energy. Some of these challenges include: climate change, energy consumption, waste production, threats to public health, poverty, social exclusion, management of natural resources, loss of biodiversity, and land use. In this context, sustainable development approaches are now essential obligations. Sustainable development must mainly be able to respond to the various problems raised by demographic growth, the planet’s limited capacity, and social inequality. Earth does not have unlimited resources, especially since individual consumption has been increasing considerably because the less developed countries wish to catch up with the others. Greenhouse gas emissions are one of the main consequences of human activity that accelerate global warming. This warming carries risks of shortages and the disruption of certain natural cycles such as fresh water, impoverishment of agricultural soil, deforestation, and reduced biodiversity. This means that the future development of all species living on earth, ultimately including human beings, is under threat. In order to be sustainable, development must also be harmonious. At least a certain amount of social cohesion must exist on a planetary scale in order to create the conditions for the peace we need. Major differences between the situations of economic players are sources of tension and conflict. The North/South economic divide and the unequal distribution of the consumption of the planet’s natural resources between the world’s populations are notable potential causes of tension. Three Challenges Facing the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals: Main Challenge is the “Strengthening Governance”, while the other three key challenges of Sustainable Development that urgently need to be addressed are: Bring together the right stakeholders at the right time in the right place: Sustainable development inherently involves many different stakeholders operating at many different scales, from national governments, to transnational corporations, to local and international NGOs, to small villages, and many more. How do we make difficult trade-offs? There will be many co-benefits among the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), where addressing one goal helps address others at the same time. For example, addressing climate change will have co-benefits for energy security, health, biodiversity and oceans. However, the SDGs will also involve trade – offs. It is crucial to recognize that difficult choices will also need to be made that may involve winners and losers, at least in the short term. For example, biodiversity could be threatened if forests are cut down to expand agricultural production for food security. Food security could be threatened if food crops are switched to bio fuel production for energy security. Water security could be threatened by decisions to intensify or expand agriculture, or to build hydropower for energy security and greenhouse gas mitigation. How do we build in accountability for action? A final key challenge is ensuring responsibility and accountability for progress towards meeting the SDGs. Mechanisms to do this need to link across local, national and international scales. Strategies for Sustainable Development: On a political level, the European Union has determined a strategy to facilitate more sustainable development. Sustainable development relies on economic, social and environmental foundations in the framework of co-ordinated worldwide governance. Feedback concerning the various economic, social and environmental policies already implemented must be obtained. The states and the European Union must assume their responsibilities as a driving force in the field of sustainable development. This strategy follows on from the European Sustainable Cities & Towns Conference (Lisbon 1996), and must be a facilitator of public opinion and policies in order to change consumption and investment behaviours. This strategy hinges on measures that take the main challenges into account, transverse measures, appropriate funding, the involvement of all the parties concerned, and the efficient implementation and monitoring of political decisions. The main directives of the strategy are: the promotion and protection of basic rights, solidarity within and between generations, the guarantee of an open and democratic society, the participation of citizens, companies and the social partners, the coherence and integration of policies, use of the best available knowledge, the precautionary principle, and the ‘polluter pays’ principle. As a general rule, any policy involving a strategy in favour of sustainable development must include the following guidelines, which have international scope and permanent validity: • Becoming more responsible with regard to the future and future generations: promoting the precautionary principle, the ‘polluter pays’ principle, and the general principle of responsibility. • Taking into account the three aspects already mentioned, in a balanced manner, which assumes that the ‘environmental responsibility’, ‘economic capacity’, and ‘social solidarity’ areas must be handled equally. • Incorporating sustainable development in all areas of politics. All activities and all processes in the city must be concerned. • Increasing the co-ordination between political areas and improving consistency. Thus, any wide-ranging political decision must be preceded by an early evaluation of its social, economic and ecological consequences. This approach requires transparent decision procedures and the involvement of all participants concerned, as well as the prior determination of conflicts of interest. • Achieving the sustainable development objectives through partnership. All institutional levels must work together constructively and fully assume their role as an interface with civil society and the private sector. Important Policy Measures for Sustainable Development: • Reducing Poverty: Reduction of poverty should be the foremost priority of the Government. It should select those projects which provide greater employment opportunities to the poor. It should expand health; family planning and education that will help reduce population growth. Supply of drinking water, sanitation facilities, and slum clearance should be given top priority. • Removing Subsidies: To reduce environmental degradation at no net financial cost to the Government, subsidies for resource use by the private and public sectors should be removed. Because, subsidies on the use of electricity, fertilizers, pesticides, diesel, petrol, gas, irrigation, water etc lead to their wasteful use and environmental problems. • Clarifying and Extending Property Rights: Lack of property rights over excessive use of resources leads to degradation of environment. This leads to overgrazing, deforestation and over exploitation of minerals. Therefore, clarifying and assigning ownership titles to private owners will solve environmental problems. • Market based Approaches: Various market based approaches should be adopted to protect environment. Market based instruments in the form of emission tax, pollution taxes, marketable permits, depositor fund system, input taxes, differential tax rates, user administrative charges, subsidies for pollution abatement equipment etc should be extensively used to protect environment. • Regulatory Policies: Regulatory policies are the other weapons for reducing environmental degradation. Regulators have to make decisions regarding price, quantity and technology. They decide the technical standards, regulations and charges on air, water and land pollutants. • Public Participation: Public awareness and participation are highly effective to improve environmental conditions. For this purpose various formal & informal education programme, environmental awareness programmes, advertisement, public movements, afforestation, conservation of wild life etc are to be organized on a large scale. • Trade and Environment: The Government should formulate an environment friendly trade policy covering both domestic and international trade. It should encourage the establishment of less polluting industries, adoption of cleaner technologies, adoption of environment friendly processes etc to control environmental degradation. • Participation in Global Environmental Efforts: Participation in various international conventions and agreements on environmental protection and conservation can also help to minimize damages of environmental degradation. They include the Montreal protocol, the Basel convention, the Rio Declaration, the Agenda 21, the Earth summits, etc. • Renewable energy: Policies should be framed for the use of renewable energy like solar and wind in place of coal and petrol. Atomic Energy Agency predicted that renewable energy would overtake natural gas to become the second largest source of power generation worldwide within two years, and that global wind and solar generating capacity would increase by more than 30 per cent. SECTION – VII CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT AND ACTIONS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO INDIA: Climate change is defined as the change in weather patterns over a period of time wherein the time can be in number of years to decades and million years. In general, climate change is described with respect to a particular region. Sometimes, it can be referred by taking the entire Earth into account. Biodiversity and Climate Change: Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on earth, and its biological diversity. It actually boosts ecosystem productivity where each species, no matter how small, all have an important role to play and that it is in this combination that enables the ecosystem to possess the ability to prevent and recover from a variety of disasters. For example - Orissa Super Cyclone, Latur earthquake, Bhopal chemical disaster, Andhra cyclone, Gujarat earthquake. It is now believed that human activity is changing biodiversity and causing massive extinctions. The World Resource Institute reports that there is a link between biodiversity and climate change. Rapid global warming can affect ecosystems chances to adapt naturally. Over the past 150 years, deforestation has contributed an estimated 30 percent of the atmospheric build-up of CO2. It is also a significant driving force behind the loss of genes, species, and critical ecosystem services. The 2010 Maple croft Climate Change Vulnerability Index ranks India as the world’s most vulnerable country apart from Bangladesh. With climatic zones ranging from the Himalayas to the humid sub-tropics of South India, with 5,700km of mainland coastline and 400 million people living in conditions of extreme poverty, India is fully exposed to the hazards of global warming. At present there is a high level of pollution at Delhi due to heavy vehicular traffic and industries. Action: The Indian government commissioned a major study into the effects of climate change by its own scientists. The Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment (INCCA) published its report towards the end of 2010. Focusing on impacts predicted as early as the 2030s, the results make disturbing reading for government planners. Extreme Heat: Models predict an average increase in temperature in India of 2.3 to 4.8oC for the benchmark doubling of Carbon-dioxide scenario. Temperature would rise more in Northern India than in Southern India. It is estimated that 7 million people would be displaced, 5700 km of land and 4200 km of road would be lost, and wheat yields could decrease significantly. There is strong evidence now that most of the observed warming over the last 50 years is caused by human activities. India is experiencing a warming climate. Unusual and unprecedented spells of hot weather are expected to occur far more frequently and cover much larger areas. Under 4°C warming, the west coast and southern India are projected to shift to new, high-temperature climatic regimes with significant impacts on agriculture. Average temperature across the country is predicted to rise by at least 1.7°C from a 1970s baseline. India’s most respected plant scientist, Prof. M.S.Swaminathan, estimates that each one degree Celsius rise in temperature reduces the wheat growing season by a week. The volume of rainfall is predicted to increase, but with greater variability and risk of flooding or drought. This is the prospect of greatest concern to small farmers. Action: With built-up urban areas rapidly becoming “heat-islands”, urban planners will need to adopt measures to counteract this effect. Changing Rainfall Patterns: A decline in monsoon rainfall since the 1950s has already been observed. The frequency of heavy rainfall events has also increased. A 2°C rise in the world’s average temperatures will make India’s summer monsoon highly unpredictable. At 4°C warming, an extremely wet monsoon that currently has a chance of occurring only once in 100 years is projected to occur every 10 years by the end of the century. An abrupt change in the monsoon could precipitate a major crisis, triggering more frequent droughts. India’s northwest coast to the south eastern coastal region could see higher than average rainfall. Dry years are expected to be drier and wet years wetter. Greater flooding in large parts of India, for example – Heavy rainfall and floods at places in South Tamil Nadu and South Kerala due to Ockhi Cyclone. Acton: Improvements in hydro-meteorological systems for weather forecasting and the installation of flood warning systems can help people move out of harm’s way before a weather-related disaster strikes. Building codes will need to be enforced to ensure that homes and infrastructure are not at risk. Droughts: Evidence indicates that parts of South Asia have become drier since the 1970s with an increase in the number of droughts. Droughts have major consequences. In 1987 and 2002-2003, droughts affected more than half of India’s crop area and led to a huge fall in crop production. Droughts are expected to be more frequent in some areas, especially in north-western India, Jharkhand, Orissa and Chhattisgarh. Crop yields are expected to fall significantly because of extreme heat by the 2040s. Acton: Investments in R&D for the development of drought-resistant crops can help reduce some of the negative impacts. Ground Water: More than 60% of India’s agriculture is rain-fed, making the country highly dependent on groundwater. Even without climate change, 15% of India’s groundwater resources are overexploited. Although it is difficult to predict future ground water levels, falling water tables can be expected to reduce further on account of increasing demand for water from a growing population, more affluent life styles, as well as from the services sector and industry. Acton: The efficient use of ground water resources will need to be incentivized. Glacier Melt: Much attention focuses on the observed retreat of Himalayan glaciers, the source region for India’s three major rivers. The INCCA report anticipates an increase in water run-off in the Himalayan region of 5%-20%. Beyond the 2030s, the 500 million people living in the catchments of the Ganges and Indus rivers may experience diminishing water availability in summer. Glaciers in the northwestern Himalayas and in the Karakoram range - where westerly winter winds are the major source of moisture - have remained stable or even advanced. On the other hand, most Himalayan glaciers - where a substantial part of the moisture is supplied by the summer monsoon - have been retreating over the past century. At 2.5°C warming, melting glaciers and the loss of snow cover over the Himalayas are expected to threaten the stability and reliability of northern India’s primarily glacier-fed rivers, particularly the Indus and the Brahmaputra. The Ganges will be less dependent on melt water due to high annual rainfall downstream during the monsoon season. The Indus and Brahmaputra are expected to see increased flows in spring when the snows melt, with flows reducing subsequently in late spring and summer. Alterations in the flows of the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra rivers could significantly impact irrigation, affecting the amount of food that can be produced in their basins as well as the livelihoods of millions of people (209 million in the Indus basin, 478 million in the Ganges basin, and 62 million in the Brahmaputra basin in the year 2005). Action: Major investments in water storage capacity would be needed to benefit from increased river flows in spring and compensate for lower flows later on. Sea level rise: Sea level has been raising at 1.33mm per annum, a rate likely to increase and exceed predictions of UN scientists. Studies suggest that a one metre rise in sea level would displace over 7 million people, threaten freshwater supplies and the concentration of industry and infrastructure. Three of the world’s major cities – Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai – must contemplate this risk. The World Bank says that 500 million people live in States prone to devastating cyclones which are predicted to reduce in frequency but increase in intensity. Mumbai has the world’s largest population exposed to coastal flooding, with large parts of the city built on reclaimed land, below the high-tide mark. Rapid and unplanned urbanization further increases the risks of sea water intrusion. With India close to the equator, the sub-continent would see much higher rises in sea levels than higher latitudes. Sea-level rise and storm surges would lead to saltwater intrusion in the coastal areas, impacting agriculture, degrading groundwater quality, contaminating drinking water, and possibly causing a rise in diarrhea cases and cholera outbreaks, as the cholera bacterium survives longer in saline water. Kolkata and Mumbai, both densely populated cities, are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of sea-level rise, tropical cyclones, and riverine flooding. Recurring floods in various parts of the country and 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. Action: Building codes will need to be strictly enforced and urban planning will need to prepare for climate-related disasters. Coastal embankments will need to be built where necessary and Coastal Regulation Zone codes enforced strictly. Agriculture and food security: Water resources will be affected as precipitation and evaporation patterns change around the world. This will affect agricultural output. Food security is likely to be threatened and some regions are likely to experience food shortages and hunger. While overall rice yields have increased, rising temperatures with lower rainfall at the end of the growing season have caused a significant loss in India’s rice production. Without climate change, average rice yields could have been almost 6% higher (75 million tons in absolute terms). Studies shows that wheat yields peaked in India and Bangladesh around 2001 and have not increased since despite increasing fertilizer applications. Observations show that extremely high temperatures in northern India - above 34°C - have had a substantial negative effect on wheat yields, and rising temperatures can only aggravate the situation. Seasonal water scarcity, rising temperatures, and intrusion of sea water would threaten crop yields, jeopardizing the country’s food security. Should current trends persist, substantial yield reductions in both rice and wheat can be expected in the near and medium term. Under 2°C warming by the 2050s, the country may need to import more than twice the amount of food-grain than would be required without climate change. Action: Crop diversification, more efficient water use, and improved soil management practices, together with the development of drought-resistant crops can help reduce some of the negative impacts. Energy Security: Climate-related impacts on water resources can undermine the two dominant forms of power generation in India - hydropower and thermal power generation - both of which depend on adequate water supplies to function effectively. To function at full efficiency, thermal power plants need a constant supply of fresh cool water to maintain their cooling systems. The increasing variability and long-term decreases in river flows can pose a major challenge to hydropower plants and increase the risk of physical damage from landslides, flash floods, glacial lake outbursts, and other climate-related natural disasters. Decreases in the availability of water and increases in temperature will pose major risk factors to thermal power generation. Action: Projects will need to be planed taking into account climatic risks. Water Security: Many parts of India are already experiencing water stress. Even without climate change, satisfying future demand for water will be a major challenge. Urbanization, population growth, economic development, and increasing demand for water from agriculture and industry are likely to aggravate the situation further. An increase in variability of monsoon rainfall is expected to increase water shortages in some areas. Studies have found that the threat to water security is very high over central India, along the mountain ranges of the Western Ghats, and in India’s northeastern states. Action: Improvements in irrigation systems, water harvesting techniques, and more-efficient agricultural water management can offset some of these risks. Health: Climate change is expected to have major health impacts in India- increasing malnutrition and related health disorders such as child stunting - with the poor likely to be affected most severely. Child stunting is projected to increase by 35% by 2050 compared to a scenario without climate change. Malaria and other vector-borne diseases, along with and diarrheal infections which are a major cause of child mortality, are likely to spread into areas where colder temperatures had previously limited transmission. Heat waves are likely to result in a very substantial rise in mortality and death, and injuries from extreme weather events are likely to increase. Action: Health systems will need to be strengthened in identified hotspots. Improvements in hydro-meteorological systems for weather forecasting and the installation of flood warning systems can help people move out of harm’s way before a weather-related disaster strikes. Building codes will need to be enforced to ensure that homes and infrastructure are not at risk. Migration and conflict: South Asia is a hotspot for the migration of people from disaster-affected or degraded areas to other national and international regions. The Indus and the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna Basins are major transboundary rivers, and increasing demand for water is already leading to tensions among countries over water sharing. Climate change impacts on agriculture and livelihoods can increase the number of climate refugees. Action: Regional cooperation on water issues will be needed. Eco - friendly – means earth-friendly or not harmful to the environment. This term most commonly refers to products that contribute to green living or practices that help conserve resources like water and energy. Eco-friendly products also prevent contributions to air, water and land pollution. Action: In order to be eco – friendly, we have to protect our biodiversity. SECTION – VIII SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION: Suggestions: • Strict Implementation of Environment and Pollution Laws: There is no dearth of laws relating to environment and pollution in our country, but their enforcement is very weak. Hence, they should be implemented very strictly. Promoting “Clean and Green Campaign” in our country is vital to reduce the effects of “Climate Change”. Ban on polythene carry bags is very essential. • Developing Recycling methods of waste is essential to contain pollution. • Save Petrol and Diesel by “Strengthening Public Transport System” to save environment and foreign exchange. • Planting more and more trees on war foot basis is the need of the hour. Afforestation, reforestation and stopping deforestation to increase ground water level and rain fall for irrigation. • Developing Public Transport System to reduce CO2 levels in the atmosphere. • Develop Non – Conventional Methods of Power Generation like Wind Energy. Geothermal Energy (Generating clean, renewable energy from hot water sources deep beneath the earth's surface, thus converting earth's heat into electricity), Hydel Energy, Fuel cells (A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity through an electrochemical reaction of hydrogen fuel with oxygen or oxidizing agent) and Solar Energy. • Introduce a Carbon Tax - We need major legislation such as putting a price on carbon. Capturing carbon and reducing greenhouse gas emissions and planting trees could help slow and eventually reverse global warming trends. • Exponentially Increase the Deployment of Renewable Energy - Aggressively expanding and strengthening the large-scale deployment of both centralized and distributed renewable energy including solar, wind, hydro, biomass, and geothermal to ease the strain on the present transmission and distribution system. • Develop National Renewable Energy (RE) Policy - Enact and deploy a comprehensive new energy road map with innovative renewable energy policies. In addition, set national renewable energy standards, such as 20 percent by 2020, 40 percent by 2030 and 100 percent by 2050 to create demand, new industries and innovation, and a new wave of green jobs. • Electrifying Transportation - Expedite a move to electrify transportation by encouraging expanded use of electric vehicles (EV) and plug-in hybrids (A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is a hybrid electric vehicle that uses rechargeable batteries, or another energy storage device, that can be recharged by plugging it in to an external source of electric power) and deployment of solar-powered EV charging stations around the country. • Promote Nuclear Energy - For clean and cheap power we have to produce electricity through nuclear plants like France where its 75% of electricity is from nuclear energy. • Energy Efficiency - Promote energy efficiency in the economy, notably in industry, transportation, buildings and appliances. Make energy efficiency a high priority by expediting the development and implementation of cost-effective energy efficiency standards. To reduce the long-term demand for energy, engage states, industrial companies, utilities and other stakeholders to accelerate energy efficiency investments such as large-scale nationwide use of LED lamps, etc. • Utility-Scale Projects - Plan for the long term; phase out conventional energy subsidies, and develop a long-term plan to replace fossil with utility-scale renewable generation. • Renewable Innovative Financing Solution - Provide innovative financing (e.g., tax-free solar bonds or green infrastructure bonds) to instill more confidence from potential investors and decrease the cost of financing for renewable energy projects. Create and fund a national smart infrastructure bank to accelerate local demand for renewable energy. • Decentralized Energy - Avoid future fossil fuel investments in India and, instead, emphasize nationwide deployment of community-scale solar projects and micro grids with storage. India’s present 40-GW solar target should be extended to include photovoltaic panels on the rooftop of every home in India, generating enough power to reduce the country’s massive dependence on fossil fuels. • Micro grids Aggressively invest in a smart, two-way grid (and micro grids). Invest in smart meters, as well as reliable networks that can accommodate the two-way flow of electricity. • Solar Roadways India should also take advantage of the vast network of roads across India and the sun that beats down on them and turn them into energy-creating solar super highways. The idea of solar panel roads is to replace traditional asphalt roads with glass-based "solar panels that you can drive on" in a bid to turn roads into sources of renewable energy. • Promote Solar Vehicles - A solar vehicle is an electric vehicle powered completely or significantly by direct solar energy. Usually, photovoltaic (PV) cells contained in solar panels convert the Sun’s energy directly into electric energy. • Develop Energy Storage Energy storage should include thermal, grid battery storage (e.g., Tesla Power wall home battery backup), compressed air/gas, vehicles-to-grid/home, pumped hydro, fuel cells or hydrogen, flywheels, superconducting magnets and super capacitors. Develop “Hydrogen Economy” plans. Recent innovations in hydrogen generation, storage, transport and use could transform it into the ultimate source of clean energy. Now India can export sunshine around the world by converting solar energy into liquid hydrogen fuel. • Transform India Into a Global Solar Manufacturing Hub - Establish R&D facilities within academia, research institutions, industry, government and private entities to guide technology development. • Eco Friendly Measures – means minimal, or no harm upon ecosystems or the environment. • Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation: Global warming due to CO2 emissions — which according to the UN have increased by almost 50% since 1990 — is accelerating climate change and threatens the survival of millions of people, plants and animals by causing meteorological events like droughts, fires and floods, which are becoming increasingly frequent and more extreme. This means we need to take measures to mitigate its effects and adapt to its consequences which, even if we keep global warming under 2 ºC as required by the Paris Agreements, will last for centuries. • The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 90% of humanity breathes polluted air, so is calling for a reduction in air pollution to cut rates of respiratory illnesses, thus preventing seven million deaths a year. Contaminated water also causes major health problems and five million deaths a year according to Oxfam Intermón. Hence, we should eliminate dumping, minimizing the use of chemicals and treating more wastewater, among other measures. • Protecting the Oceans: The oceans have become the giant waste dumps for plastic. What's more, there are other serious environmental problems related to the oceans such as damage to ecosystems due to global warming, dumping of pollutants, wastewater and fuel spills. Hence, the need of the hour is improved management of protected areas, giving them sufficient resources, and reducing overfishing, pollution and acidification of the ocean caused by the increase in the earth's temperature. • The Energy Transition and Renewable: While energy accounts for 60% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, the UN calculates that 13% of the world population lacks access to electricity and that 3 billion people depend on fossil fuels for cooking. This situation requires an energy transition towards a cleaner, more accessible and efficient model based on the use of renewable energy sources to build communities that are more sustainable, inclusive and resistant to environmental problems like climate change. • A Sustainable Food Model: Intensive food production harms the environment by depleting the soil and damaging marine ecosystems. What's more, over exploitation of natural resources has put food safety and the availability of drinking water at risk. Hence, it essential to change the food production model and our food habits, including a more plant-based diet featuring local ingredients to save energy and reduce CO2 emissions. • Protecting Biodiversity: We have already lost 8% of known animal species and 22% are at risk of extinction due mainly to the destruction of their natural habitats, poaching and the introduction of invasive species. Hence, we should take action for conclusive actions to put an end to these threats and conserve our natural heritage, including our increasingly threatened forests. • Sustainable Urban Development: The growth of cities, which will need to accommodate around 5 billion people by 2030, will be another of the decade's big environmental challenges. Hence, the metropolises of the future will need to be compact, safe, inclusive, ecological and energy efficient, with more green spaces, more environmentally friendly buildings and more sustainable methods of transport which put the needs of pedestrians above those of traffic. • Hydric Stress and Water Scarcity: The lack of this resource, vital to human, animal and plant survival, affects more than 40% of the world population, and according to the World Economic Forum, agriculture accounts for more than 70% of the water used in the planet's most arid countries. Hence, the need of the hour is responsible use of hydrological resources will improve food and energy production, as well as protecting the biodiversity of our water ecosystems and helping us slow climate change • Over Population and Waste Management: The UN expects the world population to exceed 8.5 billion by 2030, forcing us to considerably reduce the amount of waste we generate through prevention, reduction, and reuse and recycling as part of the circular economy, with the aim of minimizing the impact on health and on the environment. • Implementing Regenerative Farming: Regenerative farming is an agricultural practice that focuses on restoring the health of the soil and reversing environmental damage. This practice works to rebuild soil fertility, increase biodiversity, and reduce the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. Regenerative farming also works to improve water retention and reduce water runoff, which can help to reduce soil erosion and improve water quality. Regenerative farming helps to improve soil structure, increase organic matter, and promote healthy microbial activity in the soil. In addition to improving soil health, regenerative farming also works to restore biodiversity by increasing the number of beneficial insects, birds, and other wildlife. This helps to create a more balanced ecosystem that can better resist pests and diseases. By reducing the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, regenerative farming also helps to protect waterways from contamination. • Tree Planting: Planting trees is an effective way to prevent environmental degradation. Trees absorb carbon dioxide and other pollutants from the air, helping to reduce air pollution. They also provide shade and shelter, helping to reduce the urban heat island effect and evaporation. Trees also help to reduce soil erosion by stabilizing the soil with their roots. In addition, trees help to conserve water by reducing runoff and providing a natural filter for water that passes through the soil. Finally, trees provide a habitat for wildlife, helping to maintain biodiversity. Planting trees is a simple and effective way to help protect the environment from degradation. • Savings & Loan Opportunities: Savings and loan opportunities can be an effective tool in preventing environmental degradation. By providing access to capital for projects that promote sustainability or that simply provide families with a non-destructive means to grow financially and overcome poverty. This gives people in rural communities the means and margin to conserve and restore natural resources, such as forests and wetlands. • Spiritual Renewal: Spiritual renewal is a powerful tool for preventing environmental degradation. A restored relationship with the Creator can help us recognize our interdependence with the rest of creation. This can help us develop a sense of responsibility for the environment and a desire to protect it. This spiritual renewal can lead to stewardship: more mindful consumption, greater respect for the environment, and more sustainable practices. Additionally, it can inspire us to take action to protect the environment, such as engaging in conservation efforts, reducing waste, and advocating for environmental policies. • Pollution Control: Air, water, noise, soil are some of the major forms of pollution plaguing the environment today. Pollution control boards can be set up or regulatory standards must be enforced to keep pollution within lowest levels. • Forest Conservation: Increased industrialization has come at the cost of deforestation. The implication of forests being cut down is that the ecology is significantly affected. Afforestation measures need to be taken and forest conservation regulations must be seriously implemented. • Creating Awareness: Until people are made aware of the graveness of the situation, the problem of environmental degradation cannot be dealt with. Creating awareness through campaigns and movements can help avert the problem of the ongoing environmental crisis. • Waste Management: Solid waste management must be carefully managed in urban areas. Rural waste has the potential of being used as natural manure by converting it into compost. • Water Management: Rainwater harvesting and conservation of water can help with the long-term potent problem of scarcity of water. • Implementation of Policy Programmes: Enactment of environment-centric acts and policies is not enough. Their effective implementation and careful observation are what will actually make a difference to environmental conservation efforts. • Vote for Climate Action: Exercise democratic rights by supporting the candidates and policies that prioritize climate change mitigation and environmental protection. • Reduce Carbon Footprint: Make conscious choices to reduce carbon footprint. Opt for renewable energy sources, conserve energy at home; using public transportation or carpool, and embrace sustainable practices like recycling and composting can reduce pollution. • Environmental Organizations: Coordination with the organizations like Earth.Org and its NGO partners, dedicated to educating the public on environmental issues and solutions, supporting conservation efforts, holding those responsible, accountable, and advocating for effective environmental solutions can result in positive changes for the protection of environment. • Embrace Sustainable Habits: Making sustainable choices in everyday life, Reduce single-use plastics, choosing eco-friendly products, prioritizing a plant-based diet and reduce meat consumption, and opting for sustainable fashion and transportation, Small changes can have a big positive impact on environment. • Be Vocal, Engage and Educate Others: Spreading awareness about the climate crisis and the importance of environmental stewardship, engaging in conversations, sharing information, and inspiring others to take action can create a global movement for a sustainable future. • Nothing Should be Given Freely: Most of the governments of today, offering free Shemes to the public to gain votes and seek power. But, this leads to wastage of economic and natural resources and ultimately affects environment. For example: Free power supply to the farmers and the poor and waving of loans etc. If inevitable give subsidies that too certain extent only, but not freely at the cost of tax payers money, which is meant for developmental purpose and also to protect environment. • Efficient use of natural, economic resources and implementing strictly Environmental Protection Laws can only save environment to a greater extent. • Stand with Climate Activists: Our support for activists on the frontlines of climate action, attending peaceful protests, rallies, and marches, or joining online campaigns to raise awareness and demand policy changes can contribute to building a stronger movement for climate justice and a sustainable future. • Change Life Styles: No economic or industrial strategy is going to be successful without the world’s population changing its approach to climate and environment. Hence, before compelling poorer nations to change their developmental journey, it’s necessary for individuals, especially in the developed world, to alter their lifestyle in favour of simple behavioural changes, all of which directly contribute to mitigation efforts. For example: India has great experience in individual-led sustainable behaviours - using a cloth for kitchen cleaning instead of tissue papers, leaves instead of disposable plates and packaging material, water-based toilet cleaning systems, reuse and up cycling of household items, getting things repaired than thrown at the first sight of discomfort, turning off lights when not using the room/area, etc, and digital consciousness in the form of accepting bills as e-bills rather than paper bills, conserving electricity through the purchase of energy-efficient products, switching off when not in use, adopting cleantech products, virtual meetings but physical activities like outdoor run, use of solar water heaters etc. Thus, a change in life style (demand) will automatically cause a change in supply by relevant industries and can help to protect environment. • Voluntary Relinquishment: This is not new in India. With a historical ashram based culture where householders give up their material desires voluntarily to advance towards devotion to society and God, the principles have been used for greater community welfare even in present times. The ‘Give it Up’ LPG Subsidy Scheme is perhaps the best example of this theory in practice at scale. • Best Practices: Usage of locally sourced nature-based artisan choices like pattals, and bamboo bottles, refraining from excessive plastic use, conserving water, small actions such as collecting kitchen water to water plants, not leaving taps endlessly open, and using rainwater harvesting to utilize rainwater are both doable and desirous in the context of climate change. Making conscious choices in favour of sustainability will go a long way in curbing large-scale demand for environmentally adverse things. • Using air-conditioning and thermostats at more optimum and sustainable temperatures: As pointed out by the Prime Minister of India, there is little sense in keeping temperatures artificially low to 17-18 degrees and then using a blanket. Default settings on ACs and temperatures in public places like malls, offices, and airports can be increased from 18 to 24-25 degrees. Popularly called the ‘Air conditioning paradox’. • Over Consumption: Today, households need more devices per person as compared to a single television earlier. For example: overconsumption, disposability resulting in growing mountains of trash. As per IFC, ‘world generates over two billion tons of municipal solid waste annually and is expected to increase 70% by 2050.’ Hence, limiting the social consumption is one of the right directions to save environment. • Reducing the need to carry disposable plastic bags repeatedly on errands, both by decreasing consumption and replacing them with reusable fabric bags. More than 1 million bags are used every minute with an average working life of 15 minutes, but stay on the earth’s surface forever, unless recycled. • Building a culture of water reuse through individual behaviour change and mandated design specifications in favour of structures like rainwater harvesting. Water is becoming scarcer and scarcer resources. Some regions of the world have almost no access to fresh water. Governments should mandate water-efficient technologies and re-examine water-wasting ones (e.g., Reverse Osmosis water machines, single flush toilets). • Practicing sustainable agriculture through the use of local seeds and natural farming practices. Agriculture residue to be used for mulching and composting. • Fiscal Incentives for large households rather than single or two-person households, indirectly nudge societies to favour sustainable choices. Increased demand will re-energise the market for sustainable, traditional products that were made by local skilled workers and did not require industries from across the world to produce. Moreover, products of ivory, leather, and those made of endangered species must be individually discouraged and policy-banned. Circularity and reuse of waste products must be incentivised by the government. A good example will be the Government’s mandate for ethanol blending in petrol. • Fashion and Textiles: Another area where individual choices and government action must converge is Fashion and Textiles. As per UNEP, the fashion industry is the second-biggest consumer of water and is responsible for 2-8% of global carbon emissions, 24% of insecticides, and 11% of pesticides. Apart from voluntary reuse and up cycling of clothes, there is a strong need for a Policy on Circularity in Textiles in India, as currently, less than 50% of textile waste in India undergoes any kind of reuse, repair, or remanufacture. • Incorporation of Local and Sustainable Geography and Culture: ‘Annam Brahmam’ or Food is God. Even today, Indian cuisine is primarily plant-based like rice, dal, and roti. Meat is an added separate delicacy. Most of the cuisines are heavily dependent on local geography which not only provides a medicinal value to food but also reduces ecological footprint and reduces energy requirements. This is opposed to the global practice of industry-supplied veganism where in order to eat more sustainable food; one has to be dependent on avocados flying from halfway across the world or soy milk which has previously caused Amazon rainforest degradation. Golden Principle of Sustainable Ingestion:  Eat Local, Eat Fresh, and Eat Sustainably:  More plant-based diet.  Use of leaf-based disposable plates instead of Styrofoam and single-use plastic.  Use of fermented products (as is dominant in Asian cultures) that use natural sun storage for achieving the desired state.  Up cycling food waste, or organic composting food waste (sour milk to paneer and reuse of whey water for lentils).  Growing medicinal herbs such as Tulsi, and Neem around us.  Afforestation of water-table saving trees.  Eating seasonally and locally – e.g. more millets than quinoa.  Production of natural varieties and seed harvesting are to be publicly incentivised. • A Public Policy and not the Market at the Helm of undertaking the ‘Right’ Decision: In India, the Ujala program, launched in 2015, to encourage energy-efficient LED lights has resulted in energy savings of around 48 billion kWh per year and estimated savings of USD 2.5bn per year. People were incentivised to adopt these LED lights by bringing down buying costs for people. Thus, a people-behaviour lifestyle change approach directly helped in climate mitigation. • Mindful Consumption of Resources, Based on Need and not Greed: Countries must look at encouraging sustainable lifestyles – emphasis on low wastages on adjusting life in a way that ‘wants’ don’t become ‘needs’. That’s living well but harmoniously. Excesses of materialism only have negative externalities - more wastage, more littering, more eternal garbage sitting on the earth’s surface, less happiness – the law of diminishing marginal utility of the happiness-ownership curve can be seen in everyday lives. Most of the generation that is between ages 30 and 70 has seen a life where disposability and dispensability were not a part of existence. Materiality was linked to long periods of sacrifice and the rare acquisition that fuelled feelings of happiness. Even though choice is good for us, its relationship to contentment is quite complicated, and choice overload leads to a large set of negative outcomes. These range from indecisiveness to confusion to complications to dissatisfaction. In the Picture of Dorian Gray, Oscar Wilde says “Nowadays, people know the price of everything and the value of nothing.” A Way Forward: • Enhance Methodology and Carbon Sequestration: Incorporate a longer time frame (e.g., 20-30 years) to calculate the projected GHG emissions trajectory, instead of relying solely on the average rate of change over the last 10 years. • Efforts to enhance carbon sequestration through initiatives like the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) should be recognized. • Expand Set of Indicators: Include indicators that are relevant to developing countries with large agrarian populations, such as agro-biodiversity, soil health, food loss, and waste management. • For India, the EPI could incorporate indicators like the area under organic farming, crop diversification, and measures to reduce post-harvest losses, reflecting the country's efforts toward sustainable agriculture. • Transparent Weighting and Funding: Provide clear and transparent explanations for any changes in the weighting of indicators, addressing concerns raised by countries like India. • Engage in consultations with stakeholders, including government representatives and experts, to ensure that the weighting of indicators aligns with global priorities and national contexts. CONCLUSION: Rapid environmental degradation that has been taking place all over the world in recent decades has alarmed economists and environmentalists alike. Fostering sustainable development requires the effective management of naturally human and physical capital. Improved coordination across the countries to share the global resources, technology and scarce resources is the need of the hour. Global level generosity in promoting and protecting democracy, exchange of technology, maintaining stability of prices in the various economies, judicious use of all environmental material throughout to enhance human development and sustainable development is vital. Sustainable development can be achieved only if the environment is conserved and improved. Access to more material choices and economic betterment should not throw us off-balance between economic development and environment. We are forgetting that we came from Nature and hence we must return to it. Our conscious and unconscious choices should not be divorced from the drivers of life on earth. Hence, the global movement on climate change must be accommodative of sovereign choices and economic needs, but centred on individual behaviour - ‘LiFE’ - Life Style for Environment. REFERENCES 1. Chopra Kanchan and Kadekodi G.K. (1999), 'Operationalising Sustainable Development: Economic-Ecological Modeling for Developing Countries' Concept Publishers, New Delhi. 2. Govt. of India, 'Economic Survey -1998-99. 3. Jayanta Bandyopadhyay and Bidisha Malik (2003), ‘Ecology and Economics in Sustainable Water Resource Development in India’, Concept Publishers, New Delhi. 4. Krishnamurthy, H.R. (2005), ‘Economic Development of India’, Sapna Publishers, Bangalore. 5. Misra, S.K. and Puri, V.K. (2005), ‘Indian Economy’, Himalaya Publishing House, New Delhi. 6. Prakash, H. et al (2005), ‘Environment and Sustainable Development’, Southern Economist, 43(21). 7. Sengupta Ramprasad (2001), ‘Ecology and Economics: An Approach to Sustainable Development’, Oxford University Press, India. 8. The Hindu (English Daily), dated: 18-12-2009. 9. The Hindu (English Daily), dated: 6-02-2009 & 7-02-2009. 10. Viegas, Philip, Menon, Geetha (1989), ‘The Impact of Environmental Degradation on People’, Indian Social Institute, New Delhi. 11. ‘Water Resources, Sustainable Livelihoods and Eco-System Services’, Edited by Kanchan Chopra, C. H. Hanumantha Rao, Ramprasad Sengupta, Published for Indian Society for Ecological Economics (INSEE) By Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, India. 12. https://www.weforum.org/.../3-challenges-facing-the-uns-sustainable-development-goals... 13. UN Climate Change Conference (Paris) August, 2017. 14. Climate Change 2023 - A Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 15. Climate change 2024 - International Protocols for Fighting Climate Change in 2024. 16. Environmental Performance Index (EPI) 2024. 17. Economic Survey 2023-24, Chapter: 13 – Climate Change And India: Why We Must Look At The Problem Through Our Lense. APPENDIX Environmental Impact by Country The data (2024) below ranks the world's worst polluters. Country Grade (A-E) Rank Order World Economics Emissions Index Carbon Emissions (Total MtCO2e) Methane Emissions (Total MtCO2e) Carbon Emissions (Per Cap MtCO2e) Methane Emissions (Per Cap MtCO2e) Air Quality (PM2.5) Water Access (%) Canada A 1 96.9 5,456 1,005 14.3 2.6 6.4 99 Iceland A 2 96.3 34 5 9.8 1.4 5.8 100 Finland A 3 96.2 376 45 6.8 0.8 5.5 100 Norway A 4 95.9 409 44 7.5 0.8 6.3 99 Sweden A 5 95.6 358 47 3.5 0.5 6.0 100 Estonia A 6 93.7 104 11 7.9 0.8 6.4 100 Switzerland A 7 92.0 349 51 4.0 0.6 9.0 97 Austria A 8 90.9 646 70 7.2 0.8 11.5 99 Denmark A 9 90.9 296 77 5.1 1.3 9.7 100 Latvia A 10 90.9 73 19 3.9 1.0 12.0 97 Lithuania A 11 90.7 139 29 5.2 1.1 10.4 95 Luxembourg A 12 90.7 84 6 13.2 0.9 8.9 100 Ireland A 13 89.8 376 152 7.5 3.1 8.2 96 New Zealand A 14 89.5 338 308 7.0 6.3 8.6 100 United Kingdom A 15 89.4 3,468 512 5.1 0.8 9.5 100 Belgium A 16 89.3 957 80 8.2 0.7 11.3 100 Netherlands A 17 89.3 1,410 149 8.2 0.9 10.7 100 Taiwan A 18 89.1 2,829 0 11.9 0.0 23.3 0 Czechia A 19 88.9 971 124 9.1 1.2 14.3 98 Slovak Republic A 20 88.7 353 44 6.5 0.8 15.9 99 Slovenia A 21 88.6 126 17 6.1 0.8 14.1 98 Germany A 22 88.4 6,748 470 8.0 0.6 10.7 100 Belarus A 23 88.2 596 172 6.3 1.8 15.5 93 France A 24 87.7 3,060 569 4.7 0.9 10.5 100 Hungary A 25 87.7 484 68 5.0 0.7 14.2 100 Spain A 26 86.9 2,337 393 5.0 0.8 9.3 100 Portugal A 27 86.3 408 113 4.0 1.1 7.3 95 Chile A 28 86.2 854 119 4.5 0.6 20.5 99 Japan A 29 86.1 10,674 252 8.5 0.2 10.8 99 Ukraine A 30 86.0 2,018 322 4.6 0.7 13.5 88 Uruguay B 31 85.6 67 205 1.9 5.9 8.5 100 Bulgaria B 32 85.5 426 70 6.2 1.0 17.3 96 Greece B 33 85.4 563 91 5.4 0.9 14.6 99 Romania B 34 84.8 793 163 4.2 0.9 13.3 82 Poland B 35 84.6 3,286 295 8.7 0.8 18.8 89 Croatia B 36 84.1 177 37 4.3 0.9 15.3 85 Italy B 37 83.9 3,287 447 5.4 0.7 14.2 93 Moldova B 38 83.6 56 50 1.4 1.3 12.4 75 North Macedonia B 39 83.5 69 24 3.3 1.1 0.0 80 Malta B 40 83.2 17 2 3.9 0.4 12.9 100 Cyprus B 41 82.9 76 8 6.2 0.6 14.5 100 Korea, Rep. B 42 82.1 6,161 215 12.0 0.4 24.0 99 Kazakhstan B 43 82.0 2,767 707 14.6 3.7 26.5 89 Mauritius B 44 82.0 45 20 3.5 1.6 10.5 100 Bosnia and Herzegovina B 45 81.5 136 37 4.2 1.1 26.2 87 Türkiye B 46 80.9 4,462 510 5.3 0.6 26.5 97 Botswana B 47 80.7 65 35 2.7 1.5 12.8 92 Australia B 48 80.6 3,912 1,372 15.2 5.3 8.9 100 Georgia B 49 80.5 110 55 2.8 1.4 19.1 69 Israel B 50 80.3 545 93 6.2 1.1 19.5 100 Namibia B 51 80.3 40 54 1.6 2.1 11.8 84 Russia B 52 80.3 17,555 6,274 12.0 4.3 8.9 76 Albania B 53 80.2 46 27 1.6 1.0 16.3 71 Kyrgyzstan B 54 79.8 93 49 1.4 0.7 37.6 77 Serbia B 55 79.7 309 148 3.6 1.7 21.7 75 Guyana B 56 79.4 31 19 3.9 2.4 11.1 96 Panama B 57 79.1 130 51 3.0 1.2 11.8 94 Armenia B 58 79.0 68 23 2.3 0.8 34.1 82 South Africa B 59 78.9 4,359 733 7.3 1.2 19.8 94 Bhutan B 60 78.7 15 5 2.0 0.6 26.1 73 Singapore C 61 78.5 325 45 5.5 0.8 13.3 100 Morocco C 62 78.4 706 123 1.9 0.3 13.4 75 Tunisia C 63 77.9 316 67 2.7 0.6 10.3 74 Jamaica C 64 77.4 77 8 2.6 0.3 14.8 91 Turkmenistan C 65 76.9 830 1,266 13.6 20.7 26.4 95 Bolivia C 66 76.7 233 312 2.0 2.6 25.2 93 Angola C 67 76.4 214 404 0.6 1.2 27.2 98 Azerbaijan C 68 76.4 385 159 3.8 1.6 24.6 72 El Salvador C 69 76.4 72 33 1.1 0.5 22.2 98 Eswatini C 70 76.1 11 13 0.9 1.2 15.1 71 Comoros C 71 76.0 3 2 0.3 0.3 14.4 0 Costa Rica C 72 75.6 78 47 1.5 0.9 14.7 81 Jordan C 73 75.6 256 67 2.5 0.7 25.9 86 Libya C 74 75.3 745 244 10.7 3.5 29.8 100 Argentina C 75 74.8 1,865 1,323 4.1 2.9 12.0 57 Haiti C 76 74.3 29 53 0.3 0.5 9.7 67 Malaysia C 77 74.3 2,560 380 7.8 1.2 21.5 94 Zimbabwe C 78 74.1 113 122 0.8 0.8 13.1 63 Ecuador C 79 73.8 413 279 2.3 1.6 16.6 67 Thailand C 80 73.5 2,785 783 4.0 1.1 24.6 100 Colombia C 81 73.1 917 779 1.8 1.5 14.0 74 Paraguay C 82 73.1 86 308 1.2 4.3 12.3 64 Zambia C 83 73.0 77 265 0.4 1.4 16.9 65 Gabon C 84 72.2 57 77 2.5 3.4 26.3 85 Kenya C 85 71.6 199 385 0.4 0.7 12.5 62 Uzbekistan C 86 71.5 1,216 533 3.6 1.6 41.0 80 Mozambique C 87 71.3 71 251 0.2 0.8 16.5 63 Lesotho C 88 71.1 23 10 1.1 0.5 17.6 28 Mongolia C 89 71.0 503 184 15.1 5.5 41.3 39 Honduras D 90 70.8 109 84 1.1 0.8 18.9 65 Dominican Republic D 91 70.5 289 93 2.6 0.9 7.6 45 Lebanon D 92 70.5 250 35 3.7 0.5 24.2 48 Suriname D 93 70.3 28 14 4.7 2.4 12.2 56 Papua New Guinea D 94 70.1 85 110 0.9 1.2 8.9 45 Burundi D 95 69.9 7 13 0.1 0.1 28.0 62 Algeria D 96 69.7 1,763 879 4.0 2.0 22.7 71 Brazil D 97 69.6 4,889 4,622 2.3 2.2 10.9 87 United States D 98 69.6 50,073 7,524 15.0 2.3 7.2 98 Guinea D 99 69.0 48 173 0.4 1.3 37.6 92 Nicaragua D 100 69.0 51 98 0.8 1.5 16.0 56 Tajikistan D 101 69.0 103 57 1.1 0.6 53.7 55 Guatemala D 102 68.8 203 117 1.1 0.6 20.8 56 Oman D 103 68.7 810 203 15.5 3.9 34.9 91 Rwanda D 104 67.6 18 28 0.1 0.2 35.7 60 Peru D 105 67.2 563 320 1.7 1.0 29.1 52 United Arab Emirates D 106 66.9 2,041 575 20.4 5.8 41.8 100 Liberia D 107 66.8 12 4 0.2 0.1 35.8 75 Vietnam D 108 66.8 3,260 805 3.3 0.8 20.9 58 Sudan D 109 66.2 210 570 0.5 1.3 21.4 60 Myanmar D 110 65.6 363 811 0.7 1.5 27.2 57 Mexico D 111 65.4 4,072 1,459 3.1 1.1 17.8 43 Mali D 112 64.7 42 238 0.2 1.1 38.6 83 Benin D 113 64.4 78 41 0.6 0.3 31.5 65 Bahrain D 114 64.1 390 181 22.3 10.4 51.8 99 Philippines D 115 63.8 1,443 666 1.3 0.6 22.5 48 Sri Lanka D 116 63.8 208 82 1.0 0.4 23.9 47 Madagascar D 117 63.7 43 199 0.2 0.7 16.0 22 Congo, Rep. D 118 63.0 75 105 1.3 1.9 29.5 46 Malawi D 119 62.2 15 47 0.1 0.2 18.6 18 Cambodia D 120 61.9 190 198 1.1 1.2 17.8 29 Egypt E 121 61.8 2,496 657 2.4 0.6 63.2 97 Mauritania E 122 61.8 41 71 0.9 1.5 42.0 72 Yemen, Rep. E 123 61.7 125 107 0.4 0.4 41.6 61 Saudi Arabia E 124 61.4 6,724 1,043 19.0 3.0 57.2 100 Tanzania E 125 61.0 130 510 0.2 0.8 15.4 11 Kuwait E 126 60.7 1,061 229 24.5 5.3 64.1 100 Qatar E 127 60.7 957 312 32.7 10.7 59.0 97 Nepal E 128 60.4 142 243 0.5 0.8 36.4 16 Laos E 129 60.3 208 102 2.8 1.4 21.2 18 Bangladesh E 130 58.4 932 898 0.6 0.5 46.0 59 Ethiopia E 131 58.3 178 978 0.2 0.8 21.8 13 Gambia E 132 58.0 7 14 0.3 0.6 39.1 48 Cameroon E 133 57.8 93 191 0.3 0.7 56.4 66 Cote d'Ivoire E 134 57.5 117 81 0.4 0.3 40.4 44 Uganda E 135 57.5 58 217 0.1 0.5 31.3 19 Togo E 136 57.2 23 31 0.3 0.4 25.2 19 Burkina Faso E 137 56.4 57 159 0.3 0.7 40.7 47 Indonesia E 138 56.0 6,193 3,455 2.2 1.3 19.3 30 Pakistan E 139 55.9 2,295 1,734 1.0 0.8 50.1 51 Ghana E 140 55.1 213 124 0.7 0.4 46.0 45 Central African Republic E 141 54.8 2 203 0.0 4.1 27.2 6 Afghanistan E 142 54.7 119 167 0.3 0.4 62.5 30 Congo, Dem. Rep E 143 54.7 26 517 0.0 0.6 31.6 12 Guinea-Bissau E 144 54.5 4 14 0.2 0.7 34.9 24 Niger E 145 54.1 27 297 0.1 1.2 50.2 47 Senegal E 146 53.2 136 122 0.8 0.7 38.2 27 Sierra Leone E 147 50.9 13 37 0.2 0.5 39.4 10 India E 148 49.3 27,097 7,106 1.9 0.5 50.2 91 Chad E 149 48.2 19 617 0.1 3.7 41.2 6 Nigeria E 150 46.3 1,370 1,564 0.7 0.7 55.6 29 China E 151 40.6 114,724 12,131 7.9 0.8 38.2 94 Total Carbon and Methane expressed in Millions of MtCO2e Source: World Economics, World Health Organization, United Nations and World Bank Key: Emissions Index numbers shown on a scale of 0-100. 0 = High emissions, 100 = Low emissions. Grade definitions: A: Very low emissions B: Low emissions C: Moderate emissions D: High emissions E: Very high emissions